Organic & Bio-Fertilizers in Nepal: Compost, Vermicompost & Jholmal

In Nepali farming, 'mal' means fertilizer or manure, and 'organic mal' refers to plant nutrients supplied from living or once-living material rather than factory-made chemical salts. The main organic and bio-inputs used in Nepal are farmyard manure (FYM), compost, vermicompost, green manure, the fermented liquid 'Jholmal', and microbial or botanical bio-pesticides. Unlike urea or diammonium phosphate (DAP), these release nutrients slowly, add organic matter, feed soil microbes and help the soil hold water.

Nepal imports almost all of its chemical fertilizer, and the government subsidises the three main grades — urea, DAP and murate of potash (MoP) — for smallholders, though shortages are common. Because organic inputs alone rarely supply enough nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) for high-yielding crops, agencies promote Integrated Plant Nutrient Management (IPNM): combining compost or FYM with a reduced, well-timed dose of chemical fertilizer plus micronutrients. The Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development's updated rice fertilizer recommendation, endorsed in 2022, explicitly builds in organic matter and the micronutrients zinc and boron alongside NPK.

The practical message is that organic inputs and chemical fertilizers are complements, not strict opposites: compost and vermicompost build long-term soil fertility and structure, while a smaller, well-timed chemical top-up covers peak nutrient demand. Fully organic systems are possible and are promoted in some districts and provinces, but they require careful nutrient budgeting, more manure and time for the soil to adjust.

Farmyard manure — a mix of cattle dung, urine-soaked bedding and crop residues — is the oldest and most widespread organic fertilizer in Nepal, but poorly managed heaps left in the open lose much of their nitrogen and value. Proper composting decomposes organic waste under controlled moisture and aeration so it becomes dark, crumbly, odourless humus rich in nutrients and microbes. Both pit composting (common in the hills and Tarai) and heap composting are used, and the 'Nadep' and improved-pit methods are promoted through extension.

A good compost balances carbon-rich 'brown' material (dry straw, leaves, crop residue) with nitrogen-rich 'green' material (fresh weeds, kitchen scraps, animal dung). Turning the pile, keeping it as moist as a wrung-out sponge, and covering it against rain and direct sun all speed decomposition and reduce nutrient loss. Finished compost typically takes two to four months and is applied before planting or as a top dressing. Well-made FYM/compost holds only around half a percent nitrogen, so large quantities are needed; its real strength is adding organic matter and improving soil structure, water retention and micronutrient supply.

Vermicompost is compost produced with the help of earthworms, which eat organic waste and excrete nutrient-rich castings. In Nepal the most widely used species is the red worm Eisenia fetida (often called red wiggler), and native species such as Perionyx excavatus are also studied. Research in Nepal's subtropical conditions has found Eisenia fetida efficient in reproduction, turnover and nutrient content, performing especially well when fed cow dung. Small commercial vermicompost producers have emerged around the Kathmandu Valley, Chitwan and other pockets, selling worms and finished castings to vegetable and nursery growers.

Vermicompost is prepared in shaded pits, tanks or beds by feeding worms a mix of partly decomposed cow dung and organic waste kept moist and out of direct sun; fresh hot manure and acidic or salty waste are avoided because they harm the worms. Under good conditions a batch is ready in roughly one to three months, after which the worms are separated and the dark, granular vermicompost is sieved and used. Because worms concentrate nutrients, it is generally richer than ordinary compost, with NPK often each around one to two percent, plus beneficial microbes.

Vermicompost is valued in Nepal for high-value crops such as vegetables, coffee, tea and nursery seedlings, where its fine texture and microbial life aid germination and early growth. It is not a complete substitute for all nutrients in intensive cereal cropping, but as a soil amendment it is among the most effective home-producible bio-fertilizers.

Jholmal — literally 'liquid manure' from 'jhol' (liquid) and 'mal' (fertilizer) — is a fermented liquid input that acts as both a bio-fertilizer and a bio-pesticide. It was developed and popularised for mountain farming through programmes run by the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) and the Nepali NGO CEAPRED. It is made by fermenting locally available materials — animal urine, dung, water, beneficial microbes and pungent or bitter local plants — into a strong-smelling slurry that farmers can prepare cheaply at home.

Three formulations are commonly described. Jholmal-1 is used mainly as a bio-fertilizer and, in its simplest form, is made by mixing animal urine, dung and water in roughly a 1:1:1 ratio and fermenting the sealed, airtight container for about two to three weeks. Jholmal-2 and Jholmal-3 add pungent, bitter or aromatic plants — such as sisnu (stinging nettle), titepati (Artemisia), bakaino (Persian lilac), sayapatri (marigold), banmara (Lantana/Eupatorium) and dhaturo (thorn apple) — so they work more as bio-pesticides that repel or suppress insect pests and some diseases. Cow urine and these plants contribute antimicrobial and insect-deterrent properties.

Once fermented and strained, Jholmal is diluted with water before use — commonly around one part slurry to five parts water for soil application at the root zone, with more dilute sprays for foliage — and applied at roughly weekly intervals. Because it supplies both nutrients and pest suppression from farm waste, it is attractive for smallholders reducing chemical use, though results depend on correct preparation, dilution and timing, and it complements rather than replaces balanced nutrient management.

Any pesticide sold in Nepal — chemical or biological — must be registered with the Plant Quarantine and Pesticide Management Centre (PQPMC), the regulator under the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development, under the Pesticide Act and its rules. Bio-pesticides are living organisms or naturally derived substances used to manage pests. According to PQPMC data they are only a modest fraction of the thousands of registered trade products, but their number has been rising as the government and donors promote safer alternatives.

Registered and promoted bio-pesticides in Nepal include microbial agents such as Trichoderma viride (a bio-fungicide against soil-borne diseases), Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt, effective against caterpillars), and botanical products based on neem (azadirachtin). Trichoderma has been produced domestically through public-private and laboratory partnerships and is widely used as a seed and soil treatment. These products leave little harmful residue, are safer for beneficial insects and pollinators, and fit both organic systems and Integrated Pest Management (IPM).

Farmers should buy only PQPMC-registered products from licensed agrovets and follow dose and storage instructions, because living bio-agents lose effectiveness if stored badly. For up-to-date lists of registered bio-pesticides and banned chemicals, PQPMC's official portal is the authoritative source. Home-made preparations like Jholmal are legal for a farmer's own use but are not the same as registered, quality-assured products.

'Organic' is a production claim that should be verified, and Nepal has built a framework around a National Technical Standard for organic agriculture, coordinated by the National Coordination Committee for Organic Agriculture Production and Processing System. Certification proves to buyers that produce was grown without prohibited chemical fertilizers and pesticides, following a defined standard and inspection process. Three routes are used in Nepal, suited to different markets.

Third-party certification, in which an independent accredited body inspects and certifies the farm, is required for high-value exports to markets such as the European Union, the United States and India (under India's NPOP). It is credible but expensive and paperwork-heavy, so it is mostly used by export crops such as coffee, tea, large cardamom, ginger and honey, often via group certification with an Internal Control System (ICS). An ICS lets a certified group or cooperative internally inspect its many small member farms, so an external certifier audits the group instead of every plot, sharply reducing per-farmer cost.

For domestic and local markets, the Participatory Guarantee System (PGS) is promoted as a low-cost, farmer- and consumer-driven alternative in which local groups inspect one another and collectively guarantee that standards are met. It is cheaper and more accessible for smallholders selling in local and municipal markets, and organisations such as ANSAB have piloted it in several districts. Farmers should match the route to their market: PGS for local sales, ICS-based group third-party certification for exports.

Organic agriculture has featured in Nepal's plans since the early 2000s, when the National Agriculture Policy (2061 BS / 2004) first flagged organic production, initially with an export focus. Local declarations followed: Jumla district declared itself organic around 2064 BS (2007), banning outside agrochemicals, and Karnali Province declared its intention to become a fully organic province in 2018, later backing this with the Karnali Province Organic Agriculture Act (2076 BS / 2019). Such declarations have been ambitious but uneven in practice, as reporting has highlighted continued inflows of conventionally grown produce and gaps in testing and farmer support.

At the federal level, the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development formed a High-Level Taskforce on the Promotion of Organic Agriculture in 2076 BS (2019) and has since worked on a dedicated organic promotion unit, standards and programmes. Certified organic land remains a small share of Nepal's farmland — in the order of several thousand hectares — but interest is growing on health and export demand. Federal and provincial programmes provide grants, training and market support for compost, vermicompost and bio-input production.

Donors and research bodies play a large role: ICIMOD and CEAPRED developed and scaled Jholmal; the Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) researches composting, vermicomposting and bio-agents; and NGOs such as ANSAB and LI-BIRD run organic certification, agroecology and no-pesticide campaigns. Together, subsidy for chemical fertilizer alongside promotion of organic and bio-inputs reflects Nepal's practical middle path: reduce chemical dependence and residues while safeguarding yields through integrated, soil-building practices.